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North  Dakota  State  Normal  and 
Industrial  School 


BULLETIN 


Ellendale,  North  Dakota 


Food  and  Clothing  Problems 


TILDA  R.  NATWICK 
Domestic  Science 
L.  MAUDE  FINLEY 
Domestic  Art 


JANUARY,  1920 

Volume  15  Number  1 


Published  by  the 

STATE  NORMAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 

Ellendale,  North  Dakota 


\ 


Entered  £ Ag;  8,  1907,  at  Ellendale,  N.  D.,  under  Act  of  Congress 
July  16,  1904. 


/ 


God  give  us  eyes  to  see  that  what  we  eat 
Fits  us  for  service  and  achievement  meet; 

That  food  is  life! 

Show  us  in  fruit  of  orchard  and  of  field 
What  in  our  souls  will  surest  profit  yield; 

For  not  alone  the  body  grows  more  fair, 

The  very  soul  is  nourished  by  good  fare; 

The  answer  to  high  calls  that  each  soul  makes 
May  lie  within  the  food  the  house  wife  bakes: 
Food  is  a weapon  keen,  a knife; 

Food  is  a trusty  buckler  in  the  strife; 

Food  is  what  we  are — food  is  life. 

C.  Houston  Goudiss. 


“The  well-dressed  woman  picks  out  her  gowns,  her  adorn- 
ments, simply  because  they  make  her  appear  more  pleasing,  not 
because  other  people  are  wearing  that  style.  * * * There  is 

only  one  motto  for  the  well-dressed  woman,  and  the  old  Romans 
expressed  it  in  one  word,  decorum,  which  means,  that  which  is 
suitable.”—  Paul  Poiret. 


•v.v' 


Page  Three 


FOOD  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  HOME 

Tilda  R.  Natwick 

Last  August  the  Director  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense 
presented  to  Congress,  a report  containing  a careful  study  of  the 
reasons  for  the  high  cost  of  living  and  some  suggestive  remedies. 
The  report  shows  an  estimate  of  the  increase  in  prices  from  July 
1914  to  June  1919  for  all  commodities  taken  together,  as  approxi- 
mately 107  per  cent.  Food  which  constitutes  from  35  to  45  per 
cent  of  the  total  expenditure  of  typical  wage  earning  families  in- 
creased in  price  111  per  cent.  In  cases  where  increase  in  wages 
has  not  kept  pace  with  increased  cost  of  living,  it  means  a tendency 
towards  the  lowering  of  standards  of  living.  This  means  that  the 
housewife  more  than  ever  needs  to  know  how  to  feed  her  family 
adequately  as  well  as  economically.  Thus  we  find  that  the  prob- 
lem of  nutrition  is  one  of  growing  importance  not  only  because  of 
the  increased  cost  of  food  but  because  more  and  more  we  are 
coming  to  realize  that  a healthy  body  is  man’s  greatest  asset. 

What  a person  who  plans  meals  ought  to  know  is  that  different 
classes  of  foods  serve  different  uses  in  the  body  and  how  best  to 
choose  those  which  will  serve  all  these  uses  without  waste. 

Food  is  fuel  for  the  human  machine,  but  how  shall  we  know 
how  much  to  supply?  When  we  use  coal  for  fuel  for  an  engine  we 
purchase  it  by  weight,  that  is  by  the  bushel  or  the  ton.  When  we 
use  gasoline  we  buy  it  by  the  quart  or  the  gallon.  'When  we  use 
electricity,  it  is  measured  by  the  kilowatt  hour.  In  the  same  way 
we  have  a measure  for  our  foods  and  as  efficient,  modern  house- 
wives we  must  learn  to  think  calories  as  we  think  yards  or  pounds. 

As  we  measure  cloth  in  yards  and  sugar  by  the  pound  so  we 
measure  the  nutriment  of  food  stuffs  in  calories.  The  scientific 
definition  of  a calorie  tells  us  that  it  is  the  amount  of  heat  required 
to  raise  four  pounds  of  water  1 degree  Fahrenheit.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  remember  this  definition.  We  do  not  try  to  define 
yard  and  pound  and  gallon  every  time  we  use  the  terms.  The 
important  thing  to  know  is  that  foods  may  be  measured  and  com- 
pared and  that  when  we  speak  of  caloric  value  of  foods,  we  mean 
their  fuel  producing  value  to  the  human  body.  For  practical 
purposes  we  may  think  of  a calorie  as  simply  the  amount  of  food 
that  it  takes  to  lift  one  hundred  pounds  thirty  feet.  One  may 
push  a hundred  pounds  on  a lawn  mower  and  drive  it  thirty  feet 


Page  Four 


along,  one  may  climb  stairs,  make  beds,  wash  dishes  or  play  the 
piano.  No  matter  what  one  does,  when  he  has  worked  as  hard 
as  he  would  work  to  hoist  one  hundred  pounds  thirty  feet  he  has 
used  up  one  calorie  of  food  and  the  food  by  means  of  which  we  do  a 
calorie’s  worth  of  toil  is  also  said  to  have  one  calorie  of  fuel  value. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  of  course,  most  of  our  work  and  most  of  our 
food,  goes  where  it  doesn’t  show.  Our  heart  pumps  twenty-four 
hours  a day  against  the  friction  of  the  blood  vessels.  We  pull  a 
good  many  muscles  just  to  keep  from  falling  down.  It  takes  one 
or  two  hundred  calories  of  food  each  day  to  digest  the  rest.  One 
thing  with  another,  most  of  us  do  more  than  two  thousand  calories 
worth  of  labor  in  each  day;  an  amount  which  if  all  went  into 
straight  lift  would  elevate  a ton  weight  more  than  half  a mile. 
Working,  living  and  keeping  warm  are  not  the  only  results  of  eating 
our  meals.  Some  of  us  in  addition  grow.  If  we  are  young  and  add- 
ing to  our  bone  and  muscle,  it  takes,  according  to  circumstances,  a 
thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  calories  of  food  to  make  a pound  of 
youngster. 

Food  then  must  fulfill  certain  requirements.  It  must  pro- 
vide for  growth,  maintenance  and  repair  and  it  must  also  provide 
energy  for  the  activities  of  the  body. 

We  need  to  think  of  the  body  as  taking  in  and  giving  off 
energy.  In  fact  a well-trained  man  is  the  most  efficient  energy 
transforming  machine  of  any.  The  finest  motor  is  only  30  per 
cent  efficient  and  a well  made  engine  only  20  per  cent,  while  a man 
in  good  condition  is  capable  of  33  Vi  per  cent  of  efficiency.  True  it 
is  that  our  grandmothers  brought  up  large  families  without  any 
knowledge  of  food  requirements  save  tradition  and  trusted  in 
Providence  for  results.  Science,  however,  has  made  us  aware  that 
both  knowledge  and  care  are  required  to  maintain  health,  strength 
and  efficiency.  If  you  use  a cheap  quality  of  gasoline  in  your 
automobile  all  may  go  well  for  awhile  but  sooner  or  later  there  is 
trouble.  The  majority  of  people  think  too  much  of  their  auto- 
mobiles to  try  poor  fuel  on  them,  yet  we  will  continue  to  pile  our 
bodies  full  of  anything  we  happen  to  like,  and  then  when  the 
machine  doesn’t  work  the  right  way,  we  feel  mighty  sorry  for 
ourselves  and  very  seldom  realize  or  admit  that  we  are  getting  ex- 
actly what  is  coming  to  us.  We  must  learn  to  eat  for  efficiency, 
not  for  satiety. 

Food  selection  is  a science  and  to  know  that  the  members  of 


Page  Five 


the  family  are  adequately  provided  for,  you  must  let  needs  not 
whims  govern  their  food  habits.  Learn  to  know  the  needs  of  each 
member  of  the  family  and  plan  your  meals  to  meet  these  needs, 
under  all  or  any  circumstances,  and  not  plan  them  to  satisfy  per- 
verted appetites. 

The  amount  of  work  which  a person  does  is  the  greatest  factor 
in  determining  food  requirement.  The  requirement  varies  with 
age,  size,  sex,  climate,  weight  and  activity  of  the  individual.  It 
requires  careful  computation  to  determine  the  exact  amount. 
Children  require  less  than  adults  but  because  they  are  so  very 
active  and  because  they  are  growing  they  require  more  in  propor- 
tion to  their  weight.  An  elderly  man  requires  less  than  his 
younger,  more  robust  son. 

We  need  a certain  number  of  calories  each  day  to  maintain 
each  of  the  pounds  which  our  height  will  justify  accordng  to  our 
age,  weight  and  activities.  Infants  require  as  much  as  40  to  50 
calories  per  pound  each  day,  and  older  children  require  as  much  as 
thirty  or  forty  calories  per  pound  Adults  who  work  at  hard 
physical  labor  need  twenty  or  so  calories  per  pound  each  day, 
while  sedentary  workers,  getting  mild  exercise  are  better  off 
with  only  fifteen  calories  for  every  justified  pound  of  weight. 

In  general  the  total  daily  requirements  are  as  follows: 

(а)  For  the  average  man  (154  lbs.) 

At  sedentary  occupation 2000-2800  calories 

Standing  or  walking .2700-3000  calories 

Moderate  muscular  work 3000-3500  calories 

Severe  exercise 4000-6000  calories 

(б)  For  the  average  woman  (128  lbs.) 

Sedentary  occupation . 2000-2200  calories 

Standing  . 2200-2500  calories 

Moderate  muscular  work 2500-3000  calories 

The  protein  should  provide  about  one-tenth  of  the  total  daily 
requirement.  Fats  about  three-tenths  of  the  total  requirement, 
and  carbohydrates  about  six-tenths  of  the  total  for  the  day. 

Protein  is  essential  in  our  diet  as  it  is  the  one  source  from 
which  the  body  can  obtain  uitrogen  and  nitrogen  is  very  essential 
for  the  growth  and  repair  of  tissues.  When  proteins  are  digested 
they  are  broken  up  into  nitrogeneous  substances  known  as  amino 
acids.  Some  proteins  are  known  as  complete  proteins,  which 
means  that  they  supply  all  the  -amino  acids  necessary  to  build 


Page  Six- 


i 


body  protein.  Other  foods  are  known  as  incomplete  proteins 
which  means  that  they  are  lacking  in  one  or  more  of  the  amino 
acids. 

Meat  should  not  be  depended  upon  too  largely  for  the  supply 
of  nitrogen  as  we  find  associated  with  it  certain  substances  called 
“purins”  a substance  which  in  part  gives  meat  its  flavor.  Purins 
are  not  nutritious  but  are  transformed  in  the  body  to  uric  acid,  to 
be  carried  off  as  waste  thus  overtaxing  the  powers  of  the  kidneys. 
Uric  acid  also  accumulates  in  the  system  circulating  in  the  blood 
and  depositing  in  the  joints  causing  gout.  These  dangers  may  be 
avoided  by  supplying  the  greater  part  of  the  protein  from  other 
protein  sources.  Here  are  several  reasons  why  meat  should  not 
be  introduced  into  the  diet  of  the  child  until  he  is  eight  or  nine 
years  old ; 

1.  The  higher  flavor  of  the  meat  tends  to  displace  milk  and 
milk  is  much  richer  in  ash  constituents  than  is  meat.  In  fact  meat 
is  exceedingly  deficient  in  calcium  while  milk  is  its  most  important 
source.  Every  child  under  twelve  years  of  age  should  have  at 
least  a quart  of  milk  a day  provided  in  his  diet. 

2.  The  sensitive  growing  organism  of  the  child  should  not  be 
whipped  up  by  stimulants  such  as  is  found  in  the  extractives  of 
meat. 

3.  While  meat  is  rich  in  iron  it  is  not  more  so  than  many  other 
foods  listed  in  a table  which  follows  and  the  intestinal  putrefaction 
of  meat  interferes  seriously  with  its  use  of  iron. 

In  the  process  of  the  digestion  of  proteins  certain  acids  are 
formed  and  to  keep  the  body  safely  alkaline,  foods  which  supply 
alkaline  material  should  be  included  in  the  diet,  such  as  milk, 
'cream,  molasses,  almost  all  dried  and  fresh  fruits,  including  lemons, 
oranges  and  grape  fruit.  Thus  the  acid  forming  foods,  as  cereals, 
bread,  meat,  eggs,  plums,  cranberries  and  prunes  should  be  care- 
fully balanced  by  those  having  an  alkaline  reaction  in  the  body. 
Sugar  has  been  revealed  as  a neutral  food. 

The  carbohydrates  and  fats  supply  the  principal  sources  of 
energy.  Of  these  the  fats  are  most  concentrated  and  furnish  two 
and  one-fourth  times  as  much  fuel  as  an  equal  weight  of  car- 
bohydrate. Fats  digest  more  slowly  than  the  carbohydrates  and 
give  to  the  food  “a  staying”  quality.  Both  carbohydrates  and 
fats  leave  a harmless  residue  when  burned  in  the  body  and  when 
more  is  taken  'than  the  body  demands  it  is  kept  in  reserve  and 


Page  Seven 


stored  chiefly  as  body  fat.  If  at  any  time  not  enough  fuel  is  eaten 
the  body  draws  upon  this  reserve  and  converts  it  into  energy. 
Thus  people  who  are  underweight  or  overweight  may  remedy  the 
condition  by  decreasing  or  increasing  the  amount  of  sugar,  starch 
or  fat  in  the  diet. 

But  the  problem  of  a properly  balanced  diet  is  not  solved  by 
providing  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates.  A balanced  diet  must 
contain  mineral  salts  or  ash  yielding  an  abundant  supply  of  iron, 
phosphorus,  calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  silicon,  sodium,  sul- 
phur, chlorine,  iodine,  and  flourine.  The  principal  minerals  to  be 
considered  in  choosing  food  are  calcium,  phosphorus  and  iron. 
The  small  amounts  of  the  others  which  are  required  are  certain  to 
be  included  if  foods  furnishing  the  above  named  are  supplied. 

A lack  of  calcium  will  cause  weak  bones  and  bad  teeth.  A 
lack  of  phosphorus  results  in  a general  retardation  of  growth.  It 
is  not  only  combined  with  calcium  to  form  the  bones  of  the  body 
but  is  also  an  essential  constituent  of  every  cell. 

The  iron  requirement  is  highly  important,  principally  as  a 
constituent  of  the  red  corpusles  of  the  bood  which  carry  oxygen. 
Babies  are  born  with  a store  of  iron  to  last  for  several  months, but 
the  adult  has  no  reserve  supply  and  must  see  that  the  food  fur- 
nishes an  adequate  supply  daily. 

It  is  also  essential  that  we  supply  a certain  amount  of  roughage 
or  bulk  in  the  diet  as  it  is  so  important  in  the  regulating  processes 
of  the  body.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  the  chief  sources  for  this 
Ailing  material. 

Another  requirement  in  balancing  the  diet  is  to  make  sure  that 
vitamines  are  present.  So  far  three  substances  have  been  identi- 
fied; the  “Fat  Soluble  A”  the  “Water  Soluble  B”  and  the  anti- 
scorbutic or  the  “Water  Soluble  C”  vitamine.  A list  of  the 
foods  containing  the  vitamines  are  given  in  a table  which  follows. 
The  effect  of  a deficiency  of  the  “Fat  Soluble  A ” vitamine  is  first,  a 
failure  to  grow,  followed  by  a disease  of  the  eye  called  xerophthal- 
mia, known  as  night  blindness.  Butter  fat  is  the  most  important 
source  of  this  vitamine  and  while  very  little  may  be  supplied  in 
oleomargarines,  it  is  entirely  lacking  in  nut  margarines  and 
vegetable  oils  and  this  is  one  thing  that  makes  whole  milk,  butter 
and  vegetables  so  indispensable  for  children. 

The  “Water  Soluble  B”  vitamine  has  a much  wider  distri- 
bution as  is  shown  in  the  table.  Dr.  McCarrison’s  studies  show 


Page  Eight 


that  where  this  vitamine  is  lacking,  miscellaneous  infections  are 
frequent  and  the  whole  body  liable  to  be  overcome  by  a rank  growth 
of  bacteria.  He  also  shows  a similarity  between  a lack  of  this 
vitamine  and  the  great  increase  in  tuberculosis  abroad  during  the 
war. 

The  antiscorbutic  vitamine  is  present  in  largest  amounts  in 
fresh  fruits  and  green  vegetables  and  is  also  found  in  small  amounts 
in  other  foods  named  in  the  table.  Raw  cabbage  is  probably  the 
best  antiscorbutic  and  orange  juice  ranks  next.  Cooking  foods 
diminishes  or  entirely  destroys  this  vitamine  efficiency.  Canned 
tomatoes  seem  to  be  an  exception,  possibly  because  of  their  acid 
content  together  with  the  original  richness  in  the  substance. 
Milk  looses  its  antiscorbutic  properties  when  pasteurized  and  in- 
fants fed  pasteurized  milk  should  always  have  it  supplemented  by 
orange  juice,  or  if  economy  is  necessary,  tomato  may  be  used. 
Most  of  us  probably  use  butter,  milk  or  leafy  vegetables  to  supply 
the  “Fat  Soluble  A”  adequately,  enough  vegetables  of  all  kinds  and 
whole  cereals  to  get  “Water  Soluble  B”,  and  enough  uncooked  or 
little  cooked  foods  for  “C”.  Dr.  McCollum  attributes  all  sorts  of 
common  languors,  inefficiencies  and  susceptibilities  to  many  mis- 
cellaneous inflections,  with  a shortage  in  vitamines.  Thus  with 
proper  attention  to  this  matter  throughout  the  year  we  may  have 
fruits  and  vegetables  take  the  place  of  “blood  medicines”  and  we 
may  expect  to  be  as  healthy  in  the  spring  of  the  year  as  at  any 
other  time.  We  must  all  learn  to  think  of  foods  in  terms  of  calo- 
ries of  carbohydrates,  fats,  minerals,  proteins,  vitamines,  'and 
cellulose  or  bulk. 


Page  Nine 


Below  is  given  a table  pf  foods  which  may  prove  a guide  to  the 
housewife  in  the  planning  of  her  three  meals  a day.  In  the  first 
place  take  the  day  as  a unit  in  planning  rather  than  the  single  meal, 


or  better  still  plan  for  the  week  or  the  month,  and  thus  avoid  a 
feast  of  calories  one  day  and  a famine  the  next. 

Foods 

Rich  in 

Value 

Meat  beans  cheese 

Fish  peanuts 

Eggs  milk 

complete  proteins 
and  fats 

1.  tissue  building 
and  repairing 
material 

2.  fuel 

Peas  cornmeal 

Oatmeal  walnuts 

Wheat 

Incomplete  pro- 
teins and  carbo- 
hydrates 

1.  partially  effi- 
cient as  tissue 
builderw  and  re- 
pairers. 

2.  fuel 

a.  Starchy  vegetables  as 
potatoes  and  corn 

b.  Cereal  grains  as  found  in 
flours,  meals,  breakfast 
foods,  macaroni,  rice  tap- 
ioca. 

c.  Sugar-as  found  in  cane, 
beet,  fruit,  supplied  by 
honey,  candy,  molasses, 
ripe  fruits. 

d.  cellulose-as  found  in 
fruit  and  vegetable  fibre. 

Carbohydrates 

1.  Fuel 

2.  Forming  fatty 
tissue 

Butter,  cream,  fat  of  meat, 
oilve  oil,  vegetable  oils, 
egg  yolks 

Fats 

1.  Fuel 

2.  forming  fatty 
tissue 

Page  Ten 


Calcium 

milk 

egg  yolk 

cheese 

buttermilk 

cauliflower 

celery 

lettuce 

spinach 

radishes 

string  beans 

asparagus 

turnips 

rhubarb 

cabbage 

almonds 

oatmeal 

graham  bread 

whole  wheat  bread 

white  bread 

chicken 

lean  beef 

lean  veal 

frog's  flesh 

pike 

haddock 

herring 

strawberries 

lemons 

oranges 

figs 


Foods  Supplying 


Phosphorus 

buttermilk 
milk 
cheese 
egg  yolk 
lean  beef  % 
lean  veal 
chicken 
ham 

frog’s  flesh 

peanuts 

almonds 

walnuts 

oatmeal 

rye  flour 

whole  wheat 

peaned  barley 

currants 

cherries 

grapes 

figs 

peaches 

strawberries 

raspberries 

cauliflower 

cucumbers 

asparagus 

green  corn 

onoins 

parsnips 

turnips 

rhubarb 

radishes 

spinach 

lettuce 

celery 


Iron 

milk 

egg  yolk 

peanuts 

lean  beef 

salmon 

halibut 

oatmeal 

graham  bread 

whole  wheat  bread 

string  beans 

asparagus 

beets 

turnips 

onions 

spinach 

lettuce 

celery 

cabbage 

radishes 

tomatoes 

carrots 

potatoes 

prunes 

figs 

dates 

raisins 

grapes 

strawberries 


Page  Eleven 


Foods  Supplying 

“Fat  Soluble  A” 
Vitamines 

“Water  Soluble  B” 
Vitamines 

“Water  Soluble  C“ 
or  Antiscorbutic 
Vitamine 

butter 

yeast  (richest  known) 

raw  cabbage 

milk 

spinach  (next  to 

orange  juice 

egg  yolk 

yeast) 

grapes 

cream 

lettuce  and  all  green 

lemon  juice 

cod  liver  oil 

leaf  foods 

carrots  (raw  or  cooked 

whale  oil 

cabbage 

young) 

fat  fish 

potatoes 

tomatoes  (raw,  canned 

liver  tissue 

carrots 

or  dried) 

kidney  tissue 

turnips 

potatoes  (if  not  cooked 

glandular  organs 

beets 

too  long) 

spinach 

tomatoes 

raw  milk  (moderate 

cabbage 

navy  beans 

value 

carrots 

peas 

fresh  meat  (moderate 

bananas 

germ  of  the  cereal 

value) 

yellow  corn 

grains 

1 sweet  potatoes 

unpolished  rice 
milk  slightly 

Page  Twelve 


Comparison  of  the  number  of  calories  yielded  by  twenty-five  cents  worth  of 
different  foods,  as  worked  out  by  students  in  the  Dietetics  class  at  the  Ellendale 
State  Normal  and  Industrial  School.  The  prices  given  are  those  of  the  Ellendale 
markets  on  Feb.  5th,  1920.  Also  shows  the  fuel  value  of  milk  as  compared  with 
other  foods. 


Material 

Weight 

Measure 

Price 
per  lb. 

Total 

Calories 

Milk 

4 lbs 

2 qts 

$ 0634 

1350 

Rolled  Oats 

2%  lbs 

1234C 

10 

4 504 

Beans  Navy 

2%  lbs 

10 

3910 

Crisco 

10  2-7  oz 

204-7  T 

38  8-9 

3428  4-7 

Lard 

12  oz 

1%C. 

.35 

3062.4 

Sugar 

134  lbs. 

* 2 C. 

.20 

2721. 

Rice 

134  lbs. 

2J4C. 

16% 

2386. 

Cream  of  Wheat 

20  oz. 

2KC. 

.20 

2050. 

Macaroni 

1 14  lbs. 

7%  C. 

.20 

2030. 

Oleomargarine 

5-9  lb. 

1C. 

.45 

1895. 

Peanuts 

lib. 

1 % qts. 

.25 

1877.  * 

Almonds 

5-8  lb. 

.40 

1835. 

Grape  Nuts 

15  oz. 

1 box  3 oz. 

.24 

1579.6 

Potatoes 

4%  lbs. 

.053 

1450. 

Butter 

6 2-13  oz. 

12  4-13  T. 

.65 

1340.9 

Bacon 

% lbs. 

7 slices 

.50 

1298.5 

Milk,  Condensed 

1 lb.  6 oz. 

1 34  cans 

.18 

1040.6 

Prunes 

5-6  lb. 

.30 

968.3 

Porterhouse  Steak... . 

5-7  lb. 

.35 

958.6 

Cheese 

8 oz. 

.50 

944. 

Figs 

%lb. 

l%pkg. 

.65 

898. 

Dates 

9.4  oz. 

1 box 

.58 

813.3 

Beet  Meat  Shank 

2 lbs. 

.10 

782. 

Cream 

5-6  lb. 

1%C. 

.30 

734  1-6 

Smoked  Ham 

5-8  lb. 

1 sm.  slice 

.40 

670.5 

Apples 

234  lbs. 

12 

,10 

535. 

Beef  Round 

9 oz. 

.35 

487.8 

Rutabaggas 

3%  lbs 

4 

.06% 

483. 

Pineapple,  canned  ... 

% lb. 

3 % slices 

.37 

464. 

Walnuts 

8%  oz. 

28 

.45 

455.6 

Bananas 

134  lbs. 

6 

16% 

435. 

Eggs 

5-8  lb. 

5 eggs 

.40 

420. 

Oranges 

234  lbs. 

4 

12. 

359. 

Salmon 

6 oz. 

VsCr 

!64 

257.5 

Peas 

15-16  lb 

.26 

235.5 

Oysters 

341b. 

Vs  C. 

.50 

111.2 

Head  Lettuce 

2 17-24  lb. 

1 % head 

.113-10 

195. 

Celery 

5-6  lb. 

1%  bun. 

.30 

56.6 

Cucumbers 

15-32  lb. 

54  cucumb. 

53.% 

29.3 

Page  Thirteen 


A Class  in  Millinery 


Cooking  Laboratory  used  by  the  Ellendale  Normal  School  students 


Page  Fourteen 


CLOTHING  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  HOME 

L.  Maude  Finley 

In  former  times  the  material  for  the  clothing  of  the  family  was 
made  in  the  home,  and  the  best  products  went  into  the  making  of 
them.  As  economic  conditions  changed,  this  work  was  taken  from 
the  home  until  now  practically  all  material  for  the  clothes  is  made  in 
factories.  Woman  is  no  longer  the  producer,  but  she  is  the  con- 
sumer. Ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  purchasing  is  done  by  the 
women.  In  earlier  days  when  home-spun  and  home-woven  ma- 
terials were  used,  all  wool  cloth  was  all  wool,  and  all  linen  cloth 
was  not  half  cotton  or  in  some  other  way  adulterated.  Since 
modern  devices  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth  have  been  invented,  it 
is  possible  to  make  one  fiber  take  the  appearance  of  a more  ex- 
pensive one,  thus  deceiving  the  buyer.  As  a result  of  this,  women 
have  more  or  less  depended  upon  the  word  of  the  clerks  who  are 
often  just  as  ignorant  as  themselves  along  this  line  It  has  been 
learned  by  experience  that  this  method  cannot  be  depended  upon. 

Today  with  the  enormous  increase  of  prices,  the  woman  should 
know  how  to  obtain  the  best  for  the  money  she  has  to  spend.  In 
dividing  the  income,  it  has  been  found  that  from  12  per  cent — 17 
per  cent  is  the  proper  amount  to  be  spent  for  clothing.  To  do 
this  intelligently,  the  buyer  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
different  fibers  that  are  used  in  making  cloth.  She  should  be  able 
to  tell  whether  or  not  she  is  getting  what  she  asks  for.  The  price  oi 
cloth  now  is  no  indication  of  its  real  value,  oftentimes  inferior 
goods  are  sold  under  the  name  and  price  of  more  expensive  mater- 
ials. Buyers  should  know  the  characteristics  of  the  different  fibers, 
the  method  of  adulteration,  and  the  ways  and  means  of  detecting 
the  same. 

There  are  four  common  textiles:  cotton  and  linen,  which  are 
vegetable  fibers;  wool  and  silk,  which  are  animal  fibers. 

COTTON 

Cotton  fiber  from  which  cotton  cloth  is  made  is  the  soft,  white, 
downy  substance,  which  encloses  the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant. 
Under  the  microscope  it  shows  a flat,  ribbon-like  fiber  with  thick 
edges  and  a slight  twist  at  intervals  throughout  its  length.  It  has 
less  lustre  than  linen,  and  the  surface  of  cotton  cloth  is  fuzzy. 
Adulterations. 


Page  Fifteen 


The  adulterations  of  cotton  are  not  numerous  or  difficult  to 
distinguish.  It  is  the  cheapest  fiber  and  for  that  reason  it  is  never 
adulterated  with  any  other  fiber.  By  the  use  of  starch  or  clay,  the 
spaces  between  the  threads  are  filled,  and  the  cloth  is  made  to 
appear  heavier  and  firmer  than  it  really  is.  This  sizing  does  not 
increase  the  wearing  quality  of  the  cloth,  but  in  many  cases  it  has  a 
tendency  to  decrease  it.  If  this  sizing  is  present  in  large  quanti- 
ties, the  cloth  ioses  greatly  in  weight  and  firmness  in  the  first  wash- 
ing. A certain  amount,  however,  is  necessary  to  give  the  cloth  a 
good  finish  and  to  make  it  firm  while  being  handled  upon  the  coun- 
ter. 

Another  method  that  is  used  is  in  imitating  embroidered 
Swiss.  Here  the  designs  are  printed  on  the  cloth  in  heavy  paste 
instead  of  being  embroidered. 

Tests  for  Adulterations. 

When  cloth  that  has  been  adulterated  is  held  to  the  light,  the 
meshes  are  seen  to  be  filled  with  sizing. 

In  heavier  materials,  rubbing  the  cloth  briskly  between  the 
hands  will  remove  the  sizing,  and  the  cloth  will  appear  much  thin- 
ner and  less  firm. 

Washing  or  boiling  a sample  thoroughly  will  remove  the  sizing. 

Paste  designs  printed  on  the  cloth  will,  disappear  either  in 
washing  or  turn  brown  when  ironed  with  a moderately  hot  iron. 

LINEN 

Linen  or  flax  fiber  is  obtained  from  the  flax  plant.  The 
fibers  vary  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches  in  length.  They  have  a 
high  lustre,  are  stronger  than  cotton,  but  have  no  twist.  Under 
the  microscope,  the  fiber  appears  to  be  cylindrical,  with  lines  cross- 
ing at  intervals.  On  account  of  the  high  value  placed  on  linen,  also 
the  scarcity  of  the  fiber,  it  is  often  adulterated. 

Adulterations 

Linen  is  often  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  cotton  fibers,  or 
in  some  cases  the  entire  substitution  of  cotton  fibers.  The  lus- 
trous effect  of  linen  is  produced  on  the  cotton  cloth  by  passing  it 
between  hot  rollers,  yet  the  material  will  be  stamped  and  soli  as 
pure  linen.  The  combination  of  linen  and  cotton  is  good  for  cer- 
tain purposes,  and  is  sold  as  such  cannot  be  called  an  adulteration. 
For  the  absorption  of  water  cotton  is  not  as  good  as  linen.  For 
beauty  in  table  linen,  the  mixture  of  cotton  is  very  detrimental, 


Page  Sixteen 


as  pure  linen  has  a lUstre  and  snowy  whiteness  that  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  a material  where  cotton  is  used. 

Large  quantities  of  sizing  are  sometimes  added  to  poorer 
grades  of  linen  to  make  it  appear  as  a better  quality. 

Tests  for  Adulterations. 

Linen  threads  break  with  an  uneven,  pointed  end,  while  the 
cotton  breaks  with  a tufted  fuzzy  end. 

The  linen  thread  is  much  stronger  than  the  cotton,  and  has 
more  lustre. 

Place  a drop  of  olive  oil  or  glycerin  upon  a sample  of  cloth  that 
is  to  be  tested  and  then  lay  the  cloth  between  blotters.  The  cloth, 
if  linen,  will  be  translucent,  but  if  cotton,  it  will  appear  opaque. 

The  old  test  of  moistening  the  finger  and  placing  it  under  the 
cloth  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  Some  cotton  materials  are  so 
made  and  treated  that  the  moisture  comes  through  very  quickly. 

If  sizing  has  been  used,  the  same  tests  as  were  used  for  cotton, 
may  be  applied. 

WOOL 

Wool  comes  from  the  coat  or  covering  of  the  sheep.  A singel 
wool  fiber  is  a hair,  fine  and  curly,  varying  in  length  from  one  inch 
to  eight  inches.  Under  the  microscope,  it  is  seen  to  have  scales 
with  pointed  edges.  This  scaly  surface  gives  wool  the  property  of 
felting  or  the  matting  together  of  wool  fibers  by  the  interlocking 
of  the  projecting  edges  of  the  scales. 

Adulterations. 

Wool  is  commonly  adulterated  by  the  use  of  cotton.  By  the 
aid  of  certain  machinery,  this  is  done  in  such  a way  that  it  is  difficult 
to  detect  it.  Cotton  threads  dyed  the  same  color  as  the  wool  are 
mixed  in  with  the  wool  threads,  then  twisted.  (Cotton  threads 
are  often  used  as  a core  and  then  veneered  with  the  wool.)  How- 
ever, if  sold  as  part  cotton  it  is  not  an  adulteration.  Mohairs  and 
alpacas  usually  have  a cotton  warp,  and  do  not  command  as  high  a 
price  as  an  all  wool  cloth. 

Since  the  demand  for  raw  wool  exceeds  the  supply,  old  wool 
that  is  obtained  from  the  odds  and  ends  in  the  factory  and  the  old 
worn-out  garments  are  mixed  with  the  new  wool.  This  old  wool  is 
called  shoddy.  These  odds  and  ends,  and  old  clothing  are  torn  to 
pieces,  made  into  fiber,  then  mixed  with  the  new  wool  and  re-spun. 
This  made-over  wool  gives  a shorter  fiber  than  the  new  wool,  and 


Page  Seventeen 


also  makes  it  less  expensive;  however,  it  lacks  the  appearance  and 
the  endurance  of  the  new  wool.  Shoddy  is  sometimes  woven  alone 
and  sold  under  that  name,  and  when  sold  as  shoddy,  it  cannot  be 
called  an  adulteration. 


Tests  for  Adulterations. 

Ravel  a bit  of  cloth  and  burn  separately  the  warp  and  filling 
threads.  The  wool  threads  burn  slowly  with  a blue  flame,  and 
with  the  characteristic  odor  of  burned  feathers  or  hair,  and  leaves 
a black  ash  resembling  a ball.  This  should  be  compared  with  the 
quick  burning  of  cotton  threads,  its  yellow  flame,  and  the  small 
amount  of  gray  ash  left  as  residue. 

The  ends  of  broken  threads  of  wool  fibers  will  appear  kinky, 
wiry,  and  uneven,  while  the  cotton  threads  break  with  even  tufted 
ends. 

Wool  fibers  pull  apart  when  broken,  while  cotton  fibers  sn 

A so-called  woolen  material  which  has  cotton  in  it  will  l 
more  wrinkled  when  wet,  than  if  it  were  all  wool. 

SILK 

Silk  is  the  finest  and  most  lustrous  of  all  fibe 
the  silk  worm  as  it  makes  its  cocoon.  Thi 
and  is  composed  of  one  continuous  th 
hundred  to  thirteen  hundred  yards  long, 
the  silk  fiber  appears  as  a smooth,  struct 
regular  in  diameter  and  very  transparent.  Silk  1 
is  sold  by  the  pound.  Three  thousand  silk  worms  are  required  to 
spin  one  pound  of  silk  and  one  to  two  pounds  are  required  to  make 
dress.  By  this  it  will  be  seen  why  silk  is  so  expensive  and  why  it  i» 
so  often  adulterated. 


Adulteration. 

Cotton  is  .often  woven  with  silk,  especially  in  satins,  velvets, 
and  brocades,  i these  materials,  the  cotton  may  be  entirely  hid- 
den. ^ 

Mercerized  Cotton — a cotton  fiber  so  treated  that  it  has  a 
lustrous  surface — is  used  in  silk  manufacture.  Its  glossy  surface 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  silk  fibers.  Some  pongee  silks  are  made 
entirely  of  mercerized  cotton. 

In  order  to  have  sufficient  silk  to  meet  the  demand,  the  manu- 
facturers have  used  less  silk  fiber  in  materials,  but  have  resorted  to 
what  is  called  weighting.  This  weighting  or  loading  is  usually  done 


before  the  yarn  or  cloth  is  dyed.  Tin,  iron,  or  other  mineral  _ 
are  added,  and  since  silk  absorbs  these  minerals  readily,  50  pe* 
cent — 200  per  cent  of  weighting  can  be  taken  up  without  arousing 
mur7  suspicion,  however,  as  much  as  400  per  cent  is  sometimes 
added.  As  a result  of  this  weighting,  the  silk  splits  or  falls  apai 
before  it  has  stood  a reasonable  amount  of  wear.  When  silk  ma- 
terial is  properly  made,  it  is  very  durable. 

Tests  for  Adulteration. 


When  burned,  silk  gives  out  the  odor  of  burning  feathers  or 
hair,  and  leaves  a black  ash  the  shape  of  a balk 

^ ^ilk  is  heavily  weighted,  when  burned,  the  sample  will  leave 
. the  size  and  shape  of  the  original,  but  drops  to  pieces 
iched. 

General  Suggestions 
and  fch'  ifully. 

shopping  with  a definite  purpose;  do  not  be  lured  into 
’ ich  you  haasaJBliblanned . 

;y,  and  choose  good  materials  for 

ear. 

ds  in  design  and  color.  They  soon 

i how  much  material  you  need. 

^KTthat  the  thing  you  choose  is  becoming  to  you  and  ap- 
propriate to  its  purpose. 

Look  for  simplicity  of  line  and  decoration.  Garments  ex- 
treme in  style  are  never  economical  and  rarely  becoming. 


& 

yf. 


j 


X X\ 
\ \ 


. 


f 


